Bioética empírica e moral craft / Empirical bioethics and moral craft / Bioética empírica y moral craft

Resumo Neste ensaio são examinados os conceitos de bioética empírica e moral craft segundo Michael Parker. A bioética fundamentada em princípios puramente teóricos mostra-se incapaz de resolver adequadamente conflitos de cunho ético, e a moral só pode ser compreendida no contexto real em que as pessoas vivem. Ambos os axiomas motivam, entre outros, o surgimento da bioética empírica, fundamentada em dados etnográficos, demográficos, de ciências sociais e empíricos. Trata-se de aprender e de resolver conflitos por meio do exercício diário, dos êxitos e erros, de soluções que foram adquiridas e validadas na prática. Moral craft é o conjunto de princípios e valores morais elaborado de forma individual ou coletiva, imprescindíveis para a análise, o estudo e a pesquisa de um caso ou problema. O moral craft como apresentado por Parker revela o caráter que aperfeiçoa a ética empirista.

Abstract This study discusses Michael Parker's concepts of empirical bioethics and moral craft. Bioethics grounded only on theoretical principles cannot properly resolve ethical conflicts, and morals can only be understood in the real contexts in which people live. Both axioms, among others, have led to the development of empirical bioethics, based on ethnography, demography, social sciences and empirical data. It aims to explore and resolve ethical dilemmas by using facts, daily practice, success and failure, and solutions acquired and validated in practice. Moral craft is a set of moral and theoretical principles and values, individually or collectively built, for the analysis, study or research of a case or problem. Moral craft, according to Michael Parker, reveals the character that perfects empiricist ethics.

Resumen En este ensayo se examinan los conceptos de bioética empírica y moral craft según Michael Parker. La bioética fundamentada tan solo en principios teóricos es incapaz de resolver adecuadamente conflictos de carácter ético, y la moral únicamente puede ser comprendida en el contexto real de las personas. Ambos axiomas motivan, entre otros, el surgimiento de la bioética empírica, basada en datos de las ciencias etnográficas, demográficas, sociales y empíricas. Se trata de aprender y resolver conflictos a través del ejercicio diario, aciertos y errores, soluciones adquiridas y validadas en la práctica. Moral craft es el conjunto de principios y valores morales elaborado de forma individual o colectiva, imprescindibles para el análisis, estudio e investigación de un caso o problema. El moral craft , tal como presentado por Parker, manifiesta el carácter que perfecciona la ética empirista.

Da empiria à metafísica do arquétipo: contribuições da psicologia analítica ao conceito de physis / From empiria to the metaphysics of the archetype: contributions of analytical psychology to the concept of physis / De la empiría a la metafísica del arquetipo: contribuciones de la psicología analítica al concepto de physis

Sob a égide de um clima intelectual firmado a partir do séc. XVII com o advento do mecanicismo e do empirismo, o conceito de "natureza" acompanhou o alvorecer de uma ciência moderna que se norteava pelos princípios de causalidade e materialidade. Breves percursos pela História da Ciência e da Filosofia, contudo, revelam conceituações díspares, algumas das quais pressupunham certa harmonia de fatores físicos com assertivas vitalistas e metafísicas, mediante ideias que se dispunham na forma de "pares de opostos". O objetivo deste ensaio é demonstrar a contribuição da teoria junguiana à noção de Physis, no sentido de integrar aspectos antagônicos no conjunto do conhecimento acerca da natureza. Como resultado desta reflexão, verifica-se que a epistemologia do pensamento junguiano, em muito sintonizada com a revolução quântica da física de partículas, resgata a antiga noção da Physis grega, na medida em que sua conceituação abarca o conjunto mais completo das diversas fenomenologias.

Under the aegis of an intellectual climate established from the 17th century, with the advent of mechanicism and empiricism, the concept of "nature" accompanied the dawn of a modern science that was guided by the principles of causality and materiality. Brief journeys through the History of Science and Philosophy, however, reveal disparate conceptions, some of which presupposed a certain harmony of physical factors with vitalist and metaphysical assertions, through ideas that were available in the form of "pairs of opposites". The purpose of this essay is to demonstrate the contribution of Jungian theory to the notion of Physis, in the sense of integrating antagonistic aspects into the set of knowledge about nature. As a result of this reflection, it is verified that the epistemology of Jungian thought, very attuned with the quantum revolution of the physics of particles, rescues the old notion of Greek Physis, insofar as its conceptualization encompasses the most complete set of diverse phenomenologies.

Bajo la égida de un clima intelectual firmado a partir del s. XVII con el advenimiento del mecanicismo y del empirismo, el concepto de "naturaleza" acompañó el amanecer de una ciencia moderna que se orientaba por los principios de causalidad y materialidad. Breves recorridos por la Historia de la Ciencia y la Filosofía, sin embargo, revelan conceptualizaciones dispares, algunas de las cuales presuponen cierta armonía de factores físicos con asertivas vitalistas y metafísicas, mediante ideas que se disponían en la forma de "pares de opuestos". El objetivo de este ensayo es demostrar la contribución de la teoría junguiana a la noción de Physis, en el sentido de integrar aspectos antagónicos en el conjunto del conocimiento acerca de la naturaleza. Como resultado de esta reflexión, se verifica que la epistemología del pensamiento junguiano, en muy sintonizada con la revolución cuántica de la física de partículas, rescata la antigua noción de la Physis griega, en la medida en que su concepción abarca el conjunto más completo de las diversas fenomenologías.

Apontamentos para uma ontologia formal da percepção / Notes upon a formal ontology of perception

Discuto alguns problemas conceituais nos debates filosóficos acerca do processo perceptual. Especificamente, interessa-me refletir sobre características "fundamentais" do modo de ser (ontologia) da percepção. Proponho análises formais (de base semiótica) destas questões, partindo da hipótese de que muitos dos problemas conceituais associados a elas são derivados de considerações ontológicas da percepção no campo empírico. Alguns direcionamentos para se avaliar os discursos acerca destas questões são propostos. A análise da ontologia da percepção em termos formais, ao invés de empíricos, pode aproximar-nos de uma compreensão das condições gerais e eidéticas do processo perceptual, e dela derivar uma teoria "profunda" do conhecimento. Também representa uma tentativa de depurar categorias perceptuais de confusões e ambiguidades que obstruem o desenvolvimento de uma ciência empírica da percepção, eximindo as investigações empíricas de questões e problemas inadequadamente chamados para este campo de análise

Discussing a few conceptual issues raised in debates over perceptual process, my concern is to reflect upon "essentials" features of the way of perception be. I propose formal analyses (semiotics-based) of these issues, suggesting that conceptual problems associated to them are drawn from ontological statements about perception within the empirical field. Some directions on how these issues may be evaluated are further discussed. Analyses of perceptual ontology in formal terms, rather empirical ones, may allow us to comprehend general and eidetic conditions of perception, and to justify a "deep" theory of knowledge. It attempts also to depurate to perceptual categories from misunderstandings and ambiguities interfering with the development of an empirical science of perception, releasing empirical studies from issues and problems unfittingly evoked to this field of analysis

Crítica de la causalidad mecanicista en las ciencias de la vida / Criticism of mechanistic causality in life sciences

Resumen El empirismo reduccionista (ER) subyacente al habitus científico actual, al imponer la causalidad mecanicista (CM) como principio explicativo de las ciencias de la vida, ha oscurecido la comprensión del proceso vital al equipararlo al de una máquina. Se analizan las formas diversas que toman las ideas en el conocimiento como paradigmas (antropocéntrico y de disyunción, reducción y simplificación): lógicas implícitas de las formas de pensar y actuar humanos y como teorías comprensivo-explicativas. Se plantea que el ER, al desestimar las ideas, suplanta la significación biológica de lo observado por la significación estadística de la CM y las matemáticas lineales y probabilísticas. Se argumenta que la objetividad no deriva del control experimental, sino de un marco interpretativo pertinente al tipo de sucesos bajo estudio, y que la convicción de que la objetividad radica en el cómo se observa constituye el gran mito del ER que soslaya los paradigmas y su influencia. Se propone la causalidad contextual y se contrasta con la CM para realzar sus limitaciones y explicar la complejidad biológica. La coincidencia del colapso civilizatorio y la apoteosis de la ciencia reduccionista justifica tacharla de mayormente indiferente, omisa, impotente, acomodaticia o cómplice de la dominancia de los intereses de lucro sin límites, que todo lo degradan. Se concluye que son tiempos de definiciones: integrarse a fuerzas que apuntan, de modos diversos, a contrarrestar esa dominancia y preservar nuestro hábitat común o persistir en la complicidad individualista y suicida de «cada quién lo suyo y sálvese quien pueda¼.

Abstract The reductionist empiricism (RE) underlying the current scientific habitus by imposing mechanistic causality (MC) as an explanatory principle of life sciences has obscured the understanding of the life process by equating it with that of a machine. The shapes ideas can take within knowledge are analyzed: as paradigms (anthropocentric and of disjunction, reduction and simplification), implicit logics of human ways of thinking and acting, and as comprehensive-explanatory theories. It is proposed that, by dismissing the ideas, the RE supplants the biological significance of what is observed by the statistical significance of the MC and the linear and probabilistic mathematics. It is argued that objectivity does not derive from experimental control, but from an interpretative framework pertinent to the type of events being studied and that the conviction that objectivity lies in the method of observation constitutes a myth of the RE that circumvents paradigms and its influence. Contextual causality is proposed and contrasted with the MC to highlight its limitations to explain the ungraspable biological complexity. The coincidence of the ongoing collapse of civilization and the apotheosis of reductionist science justifies dismissing it as mostly indifferent, ominous, impotent, accommodating or complicit with the dominance of profit interests without limits that degrade everything. It is concluded that it is time for resolutions: integrate with forces that aim, in various ways, to counteract this dominance and preserve our common habitat or to continue with the suicidal individualist complicity of "each their due and every man for himself."

As durações do devir: como construir objetos-problema com a cartografia / The durations of the becoming: how to building problem-objects with cartography

Como podemos falar de objetos, duração e estabilidade em um mundo feito de vertigem e puro fluxo? Este artigo propõe a problematização do conceito de objeto na prática cartográfica para pensar a formação do cartógrafo. Para tanto, necessitamos ultrapassar o dualismo entre estável e instável. Por meio de conceitos como os de tensão e complexidade podemos produzir uma ontologia metaestável. Para produzir esta ontologia relacional, criativa e complexa, vamos usar uma caixa de ferramentas conceitual advinda de dois autores. De Henri Bergson tomaremos os conceitos de duração, intuição, seleção e sentido. De A. N. Whitehead tomaremos os conceitos de preensão, sentires e criação. A partir desses conceitos produziremos um conceito de objeto adequado ao empirismo transcendental e suas virtualidades, um conceito de objeto que ultrapasse os dualismos entre os fluidos e os sólidos: objeto-acontecimento, objeto-problema.

How can you talk about objects, during and stability and a world made of vertigo and pure fluxes? This article proposes a question about the concept of object in the cartography, to work the formation of the researcher. We need to go beyond the dualism between stable and instable. With concepts like tension and complexity we can produce a metastable ontology. To elaborate this relational, complex and creativity ontology we will use some concepts that can be very useful like a tool box. From Henri Bergson we will catch the following concepts: duration, intuition, selection and felt. From Alfred North Whitehead, we will catch the concepts of prehension, feelings, creation. Working a complexity and relational ontology with this concepts, we will be producing an object without form and substance, beyond the dualism and the necessary essential. An object with a virtual dimension, on a transcendental empiricism: the event-object, the problem-object.

Crítica do empirismo aplicado à psicopatologia clínica: da esterilidade do DSM a uma saída pela psicanálise / Critique of empiricism applied to clinical psychopathology: the sterility of the DSM output by psychoanalysis

A tradição empirista na medicina impôs seu modelo à clínica psicopatológica, e a psiquiatria construiu assim seus métodos diagnósticos sobre o modelo da observação direta. No contexto contemporâneo, essa tradição aparece, sobretudo, com a iniciativa a-teórica do DSM. Os tratamentos seguirão o ideal científico, o que aliena definitivamente o sujeito de seu sofrimento. Discute-se aqui tal proposição, contrapondo a proposta psicanalítica como única saí­da ao discurso científico-positivista no âmbito da psicopatologia.

Critics to empiricism applied to clinical psychopathology: from the sterility of the DSM to an issue by psychoanalysis. The empiricist tradition of medicine imposed its model upon the clinic in psychopathology. Thus, Psychiatry constructed its diagnostic methods based on the empiricists' principles of direct observation. In the contemporary context, this tradition mainly appears with the non-theoretical initiative of the DSM. Treatments will follow this scientific ideal, which definitely alienates the subject from its suffering. This paper discusses such a proposition and opposes the psychoanalytical proposal as the only solution to the scientific-positivist discourse in psychopathology.

O lugar da análise do comportamento no debate científico contemporâneo / The place of behavior analysis in the contemporary scientific debate

A ciência sofreu várias transformações ao longo da história. Assiste-se no terreno científico-filosófico contemporâneo a mais uma mudança: a crise do modelo de ciência moderno e a emergência de uma diferente proposta científica, a ciência pós-moderna. Skinner disse que a Análise do Comportamento e sua filosofia, o Behaviorismo Radical, são capazes de instruir o discurso da filosofia da ciência. Não obstante, o texto skinneriano tem uma abertura para dialogar tanto com o modelo de ciência moderno quanto pós-moderno. O objetivo deste texto é examinar alguns compromissos filosóficos (ontológicos, epistemológicos e éticos) das diferentes propostas de ciência skinneriana a fim de esclarecer possibilidades de inserção da Análise do Comportamento nesse debate.

Science has experienced several changes in the course of history. The contemporary scientific-philosophical field is witnessing a new change: the crisis in the modern science model and the emerging of a different scientific proposal, the post-modern science. Skinner affirmed that Behavior Analysis and its philosophy, Radical Behaviorism, are able to enlighten the discourse of philosophy of science. Nevertheless, Skinner's work permits discussing not only the modern science model but the post-modern as well. This text intends to examine some philosophical commitments (ontological, epistemological and ethical) of the diverse Skinnerian scientific proposals in order to clarify possibilities of placing Behavior Analysis in this debate.

Los paradigmas de fundamentación en la ética contemporánea / The paradigms of bases in contemporary ethics / Os paradigmas de fundamentação na ética contemporãnea

Este artículo revisa la fundamentación ética (o de normas o valoraciones morales), problema básico del nivel de reflexión designado habitualmente como "normativo". Se exponen las diferentes actitudes desde las cuales se busca esclarecer el por qué de los fenómenos morales, siguiendo una clasificación basada en la distinción entre empirismo (emparentado con el consecuencialismo) y apriorismo (en algún punto ligado con el deontologismo). Asimismo, se subrayan las insuficiencias y debilidades de ambos planteos, proyectando su utilidad para una posterior tarea de fundamentación en el ámbito de la bioética.

This article reviews the task of ethical reasoning (or of norms or moral valuation), the basic problem of the level of reflection typically labeled as "normative." The article shows different attitudes from which to seek to clarify "the why" of moral phenomenon, following a classification based on the distinction between empiricism (related to consequentialism) and apriorism(at some point linked with deontologism). Also, insufficiencie sand weaknesses of both statements are highlighted, projecting its usefulness for a future task of statements of reason in the context of bioethics.

Este artigo revisa a fundamentação ética (ou de normas ou valorações morais), problema básico no nível de reflexão designado abitualmente como"normativo". São expostos as diferentes atitudes apartir das quais se busca esclarecer oporquê dos fenómenos morais, seguindo uma classificação baseada na distinção entre empirismo (parecido com o consequencialismo) e apriorismo (em algum ponto ligado com o deontologismo). Desta maneira, são destacados as limitações e debilidades de ambas as posições, projetando sua utilidade para uma tarefa posterior de fundamentação no âmbito da bioética.

The Contradictive Tendencies in Medical Treatment of the Hellenistic Age: Diversity versus Simplification, Chronic Extension(Physical Therapy) versus Rapidity, Humane Medicine versus Worldly Success / 의사학

It is a one-sided view to find the greatness of Hippocrates just in seeking after scientific medicine(medicina scientia) and sublating superstitious treatment. The scientific medicine did not begin with him, and the succeeding generations of him were not one and the same in opinions. For example, there were the confrontations between the school of Kos and that of Knidos in the very age of Hippocrates, as well as the opposition of rationalism and empiricism. The school of Kos was alleged to succeed the tradition of Hippocrates, taking into consideration individual physical conditions and being based on the principle of various clinical methods of physical therapy assuming chronical extension. On the contrary, the school of Knidos tended to define the diseases in simple aspects, paying no much attention to the difference of physical conditions and developmental stages of illness. Futhermore, the latter grasped the diseases rather in the point of individual organs than the disorder of physical state of the body. It can be said that the anatomical knowledge was more useful for the school of Knidos. The difference between the two schools can also be found in what purpose the medicine sought after. While Hippocrates attached much importance to physical therapy and made the people including the poor as object of medical treatment. there were doctors in no small number, we can suppose, in pursuit of money, power, worldly glory. As time passed, however, the two schools gradually got similar to each other, the difference of them reduced as well as the tradition of Hippocrates faded. The opposition between rationalism and empiricism in the Hellenistic Age shared, in some aspect, the difference of Kos and Knidos. According to Celsus, the conflict between rationalism and empiricism did not refer to pharmacy or anatomy, but just to diet. The rationalism materialized various methods of therapy considering environmental elements as well as individual physical conditions, but the empiricism in reality tended to expedite simplification of treatment. This tendency of simplification of the latter corresponded to the contemporary need of society, that is, speedy and effective treatment for the wounded in war or for epidemic in the army, farms of collective labour or much crowded cities. The bigger the groups were, the more the methods of treatment got simplified, individual conditions not much accounted. Then, the empiricism came to be united with anatomy, as the anatomy, being much developed in the process of curing the wounded in war, goes with simplification of medical treatment in the hospital of large scale. It can be said that the origin of simplified definition of diseases goes back far to the school of Knidos. On the other hand, in Hippocrates the drugs were in contrast to the diet. While the diet was to help health and rehabilitate physical conditions, the drugs were to result in strong effects of change. The drugs like as poison, eye-salve, ointment were to be made use f for rapid, effective change of physical state or for the treatment of a concrete, limited part of the body, These drugs were also much developed in the Hellenistic Age of the state of chronic war. In initial stages, the toxical drugs as well as the anatomy and surgical operations must have been developed on peaceful purpose, such like as 'theriaca' detoxicating(antidoting) animal's poison, or for easing childbirth. With the increasement of social inequality and unexhausted human desire, however, the toxical drugs or anatomical knowledges got to be used for undesirable purposes. Thus, we can not estimate Hippocrates simply in the point whether he developed scientific medicine or not. The great fame of Hippocrates could be found rather in his method of medical treatment as well as the principle of medicine, as he believed that the medicine should not be exploited for worldly power or wealth but for the convenience of all the people. He pursued healthy life matching to natural state(physis) and took much account of different physical states of individual to embody various methods of treatment, which presupposed chronic delay. The opposite to the Hippocratic medicine is called for the wounded by war, or the collective labourer of large farm with intensive labour exploitation. The medical treatment for them assumed anatomical surgery and drugs of rapid, strong effect.

Reflexiones acrcca del pragmatismo en cirugia / Meditate about the pragmatism in surgery

La peculiaridad de la Cirugía de incluir técnicas y habilidades manuales induce ocasionalmente el error de asignarles a éstas el papel fundamental. Por ello,el Practicismo y el Empirismo tienen un terreno fértil en Cirugía. Con estas premisas realizamos un estudio exploratorio transversal a los miembros del Servicio de cirugía en la que exploramos algunos rasgos que manifiestan una actitud pragmática ante algunos problemas frecuentes en la actividad de los cirujanos. Fueron encuestados 25 cirujanos, la edad promedio fue de 46,71 años (D.S. 9,29 años). Se encontraron rasgos del pragmatismo, enfoques caracterizados por el Biologismo; se ignora en la práctica diaria el carácter social de la medicina. No existe relación entre la categoría profesional y la valoración de la proyección social de la especialidad, lo que debe constituir una llamada de atención sobre todo para el personal más calificado responsabilizado con la formación de las nuevas generaciones de cirujanos.

The peculiarity of the Surgery of including technical and manual abilities induce the error occasionally of assigning to these the fundamental paper. For it the Practicism and the Empiricism have a fertile land in Surgery. With these premises we carry out a traverse exploratory study to the members of the surgery service in which we explore some features that manifest a pragmatic attitude before some frequent problems in the activity of the surgeons. 25 surgeons were interviewed, the age average was of 46,71 years (S.D. 9,29 years). they were features of the pragmatism, focuses characterized by the Biologism, it is ignored in the daily practice the social character of the medicine. Relationship doesn't exist between the professional category and the valuation of the social projection of the specialty, what should constitute a call of attention mainly for the most qualified personnel made responsible with the formation of the new generations of surgeons.

Algunos enfoques epistemológicos en medicina / On the Epistemological Approaches to Medicine

La doctrina del pensamiento se desenvolvió en Occidente como lógica. Es ésta una actividad del intelecto que, al parecer, se inició con Zenón de Elea, se formalizó con Aristóteles y fue así denominada por el filósofo estoico Crisipo. Corresponde ala estructura, o anatomía, del pensamiento. El empirismo lógico introdujo el uso sistemático del lenguaje logístico en la epistemología. Ésta designa a la filosofia de la ciencia, es decir, a la fundamentación critica de sus principios, hipótesis, métodos y resultados. En rigor, no constituye el análisis de los métodos científicos -lo que es propiamente el objeto de la metodología- ni una antelación o una síntesis de los resultados científicos. Puede considerarse que, en relación con la ciencia, la epistemología constituye el segundo escalón que trata de una actividad primaria. En otras palabras, es una reflexión sobre la ciencia, considerada ésta como un elemento a respetar y no como un dominio a regir. El doctor Hermann Boerhaave fue el primer médico en enfrentarse a problemas de carácter epistemológico en forma coherente y sistemática (siglo XVIII). Otros le siguieron por este rumbo en los siglos sucesivos. A la luz del racionalismo crítico de Popper pueden considerarse como problemas de tipo epistemológico también la construcción de algún instrumento médico, la concepción de algún procedimiento terapéutico y la elaboración de algún modelo útil en biología o medicina. Como ejemplos respectivos, ameritan recordarse: el esfigmomanómetro de Riva-Rocci, la terapéutica metabólica en la cardiopatía isquémica, y la elaboración de modelos teóricos. A su vez, la epistemología sugiere que la valoración del hecho apreciable por los sentidos es cosa generalmente más difícil que la elaboración de una hipótesis.

The doctrine of correct reasoning was developed in the Western World as logic. This is an activity of the intellect that apparently began with Zeno of Elea, being formalized by Aristotle, and which received its name from the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus. It corresponds to the structure or anatomy of thought. Logic empiricism introduced systematic use of the logistic language into epistemology. The latter discipline designates the philosophy of science, i.e., the critical foundation of its principles, hypotheses, methods, and results. Strictly speaking, it does not constitute an analysis of the scientific method, which is rather the object of methodology, nor anticipation or synthesis of scientific results. It can be considered that, concerning science, epistemology constitutes the second step with a primary activity. In other words, it is a reflection on science, considering the latter as an element to be respected and not as a domain to be ruled. Dr. Hermann Boerhaave was the first physician to challenge problems of an epistemologic character in a coherent and systematic manner (XVIII Century). Others followed him in this direction during the subsequent centuries. In the light of Popper's critical rationalism, construction of a medical instrument, conception of a therapeutic procedure, development of a usefulmodelin biology or medicine couldal so be considered as epistemologic problems. The corresponding examples that follow are worthwhile mentioning: Riva-Rocci's sphygmomanometer; metabolic therapeutics for ischemic heart disease, and elaboration of theoretical models. In turn, epistemology suggests that assessment of a fact, perceivable by the senses, is generally more difficult that elaboration of a hypothesis.

Philosophical background of Evidence-based medicine / 의사학

Through the whole history of medicine, there runs a long struggle between two principal tendencies-empiricism and rationalism. The empirical trend lays its emphasis on "experience" for the cure of the sick. The rationalistic trend lays its main emphasis on "mechanism" for the causes of diseases. The term "evidence-based medicine (EBM) ", defined as "the conscious, explicit and judicious use of the best current evidence in making decisions about the individual patients", was introduced about ten years ago. The proponents has been described EBM as a "paradigm shift" that will change medical practice in the years ahead. But there has been considerable debate about the value of EBM. The modern medicine, following philosophy of modern science such as the 'realism controlled by empiricism', has developed biomedical model. But the EBM wrapped with clinical epidemiology and statistics, represents response of empiricism to the rationalism (realism). The roots of EBM extend back at least as far as the Paris clinical school, and the work of Pierre Louis in Paris in the early 19th century. Is EBM a paradigm shift? To answer this question, We have to specify the alternative with which we are comparing EBM. The alternative to EBM is the basic science approach: studying the pathophysiolological mechanism of the body. But EBM is so clearly intertwined with and complementary to the basic science that it would make little sense to see EBM as a paradigm shift away from basic science. In a sense, evidence-based medicine shows only methodological contribution aimed at improving the gathering and sorting of the best information published by biomedical scientists and clinical epidemiologists for use in clinical practice. Although EBM and the traditional medicine embody different approaches, this does not mean that they are competitors. In fact, the two approach need each; neither can stand alone for the development of clinical practice.

An Empirical Approach to Clinical Bioethics / 中国医学伦理学

In modern world,bioethics has become an international social movement since its inception during the mid-twentieth century.In the practices of clinical bioethics,methodology is the most crucial issue concerned by western scholars.Briefly,the article introduces and analyzes the empirical approach in contemporary European world,as well as explains the interaction between bioethics and naturalism.Based on current development of mainstream ethics,the article also tries to answer the question about "is and ought" in the background of clinical practice.The research aims at providing the ideas and experiences for the development of Chinese clinical bioethics.